From poppy fields to black marketsUnderstanding the drug trade across India and Myanmar
07 Oct 2024 22:55:41
Sreeparna Banerjee (ORF, Observer Research Foundation)
Contd from previous issue
There are two primary trafficking routes from western Myanmar to the northeastern Indian states of Manipur, Mizoram, and Nagaland. The more traversed route starts in Mandalay, passing through Monywa and Kalewa, before splitting towards either Tamu-Moreh on the India-Myanmar border, leading into Manipur, or southward through Rih-Champhai into Mizoram. Another route begins in Bhamo in Kachin State, travels down to Homalin in the Sagaing Region, then enters Nagaland, continuing to Assam, Kolkata, and the rest of India.
Reports suggest that, due to the growing conflict in Manipur in 2023, narcotic traffickers from Assam and Mizoram utilised excavators to create a 10-km pathway from the international border to the nearest habitation in Myanmar’s Chin State to continue the uninterrupted trafficking of drugs. Illicitly produced opium along the Indo-Myanmar border, particularly in Manipur, is transported to Myanmar for heroin production, then smuggled back into India. Medicinal preparations are also smuggled from India to Myanmar through similar routes.
As drug mafias and kingpins establish strong networks between Manipur and Myanmar[n] for smuggling poppy into the Golden Triangle, and vice versa, Manipur faces multiple challenges: addressing poppy cultivation and the conversion of opium into heroin, and the confiscation of illegal drugs.
India’s porous border with Myanmar and the associated security challenges have heightened concerns for Indian authorities. The Indian government is concerned that the area may be turning into a drug production zone. The Chief Minister of Manipur, Biren Shah, has blamed the increase in poppy production on the influx of Myanmar nationals following the 2017 exodus of Rohingyas and the 2021 coup. The locals refute this claim and state that there is no proof of such a direct correlation.
Persistent Challenges
The increased narcotics and drug trafficking through the India-Myanmar border presents severe challenges to regional security and societal well-being. Easy access to heroin and synthetic pharmaceuticals in the border region has led to heightened substance abuse among the local population, further complicated by the threat of the HIV/AIDS virus. The North Eastern States sharing a border with Myanmar have the highest adult HIV prevalence rates, with 2.70 percent in Mizoram, 1.36 percent in Nagaland, and 1.05 percent in Manipur. The high prevalence of HIV associated with injection drug use in Nagaland and Manipur is combined with multiple social, political, and economic factors, including poverty, unemployment, low capital formation, and a lack of industrialisation, which contribute to ongoing conflict and growing drug use among the youth.
Drug trafficking also has an immediate impact on the political process, with drug cartels undermining, penetrating, and corrupting state institutions to control the illegal drug trade. The nexus between politicians, law enforcement, and drug kingpins, exemplified by the case of Lhoukhosei Zou, remains a crucial concern. This collaboration has created an environment where drug smuggling networks operate with impunity, shielded by those meant to dismantle them. As a result, the flow of narcotics continues to undermine law enforcement efforts and fuel instability in the region, making it challenging to address the root of the problem.
Manipur has witnessed a notable increase in poppy cultivation over the past few years. Law enforcement agencies in the state, between 2017 and 2023, uprooted 18,664.5 acres of cultivated poppy (see Figure 2). Between 2017 and 2023, 2,817 individuals were arrested, and 2,243 cases were registered under the NDPS Act. However, most convicted individuals were mules or couriers, with no convictions of kingpins due to inadequate investigation procedures.
The conviction rate remains low, as many officials authorised to seize drugs and make arrests under the NDPS Act lack familiarity with proper seizure protocols, leading to improper handling of evidence and prosecution. This is one of the loopholes that need to be addressed. Furthermore, the pressure to release arrested individuals from those in power and law enforcement agencies, as in the Zou case, also remains a concern.
Manipur’s State Government has initiated campaigns, such as Nisha Thadoklasi and War on Drugs in 2018 and War on Drugs 2.0 in 2022, to combat illegal poppy cultivation and disrupt its distribution and trade. Despite these campaigns and operations to seize illicit drugs, the issue remains persistent and complex. The state has also utilised methods such as spraying herbicides using drones.[r] Manually cutting down poppy plants requires significant work force. Drones and real-time satellite imagery are also used to identify poppy plantations in the hills.
An alternative development approach was introduced in 2022, where seeds of rabi crops, nursery items, tools, and equipment are supplied to 17 registered farmers societies from Senapati, Kangpokpi, Churachandpur, Kamjong, Ukhrul, Chandel, Tengnoupal, Tamenglong, and Noney in Manipur to convert Manipur into ‘Green Manipur’. While the Government has been implementing this and other initiatives, the rise in illicit drug trafficking underscores the need for a multifaceted approach to address the problem effectively.
Contd from previous issue
There are two primary trafficking routes from western Myanmar to the northeastern Indian states of Manipur, Mizoram, and Nagaland. The more traversed route starts in Mandalay, passing through Monywa and Kalewa, before splitting towards either Tamu-Moreh on the India-Myanmar border, leading into Manipur, or southward through Rih-Champhai into Mizoram. Another route begins in Bhamo in Kachin State, travels down to Homalin in the Sagaing Region, then enters Nagaland, continuing to Assam, Kolkata, and the rest of India.
Reports suggest that, due to the growing conflict in Manipur in 2023, narcotic traffickers from Assam and Mizoram utilised excavators to create a 10-km pathway from the international border to the nearest habitation in Myanmar’s Chin State to continue the uninterrupted trafficking of drugs. Illicitly produced opium along the Indo-Myanmar border, particularly in Manipur, is transported to Myanmar for heroin production, then smuggled back into India. Medicinal preparations are also smuggled from India to Myanmar through similar routes.
As drug mafias and kingpins establish strong networks between Manipur and Myanmar[n] for smuggling poppy into the Golden Triangle, and vice versa, Manipur faces multiple challenges: addressing poppy cultivation and the conversion of opium into heroin, and the confiscation of illegal drugs.
India’s porous border with Myanmar and the associated security challenges have heightened concerns for Indian authorities. The Indian government is concerned that the area may be turning into a drug production zone. The Chief Minister of Manipur, Biren Shah, has blamed the increase in poppy production on the influx of Myanmar nationals following the 2017 exodus of Rohingyas and the 2021 coup. The locals refute this claim and state that there is no proof of such a direct correlation.
Persistent Challenges
The increased narcotics and drug trafficking through the India-Myanmar border presents severe challenges to regional security and societal well-being. Easy access to heroin and synthetic pharmaceuticals in the border region has led to heightened substance abuse among the local population, further complicated by the threat of the HIV/AIDS virus. The North Eastern States sharing a border with Myanmar have the highest adult HIV prevalence rates, with 2.70 percent in Mizoram, 1.36 percent in Nagaland, and 1.05 percent in Manipur. The high prevalence of HIV associated with injection drug use in Nagaland and Manipur is combined with multiple social, political, and economic factors, including poverty, unemployment, low capital formation, and a lack of industrialisation, which contribute to ongoing conflict and growing drug use among the youth.
Drug trafficking also has an immediate impact on the political process, with drug cartels undermining, penetrating, and corrupting state institutions to control the illegal drug trade. The nexus between politicians, law enforcement, and drug kingpins, exemplified by the case of Lhoukhosei Zou, remains a crucial concern. This collaboration has created an environment where drug smuggling networks operate with impunity, shielded by those meant to dismantle them. As a result, the flow of narcotics continues to undermine law enforcement efforts and fuel instability in the region, making it challenging to address the root of the problem.
Manipur has witnessed a notable increase in poppy cultivation over the past few years. Law enforcement agencies in the state, between 2017 and 2023, uprooted 18,664.5 acres of cultivated poppy (see Figure 2). Between 2017 and 2023, 2,817 individuals were arrested, and 2,243 cases were registered under the NDPS Act. However, most convicted individuals were mules or couriers, with no convictions of kingpins due to inadequate investigation procedures.
The conviction rate remains low, as many officials authorised to seize drugs and make arrests under the NDPS Act lack familiarity with proper seizure protocols, leading to improper handling of evidence and prosecution. This is one of the loopholes that need to be addressed. Furthermore, the pressure to release arrested individuals from those in power and law enforcement agencies, as in the Zou case, also remains a concern.
Manipur’s State Government has initiated campaigns, such as Nisha Thadoklasi and War on Drugs in 2018 and War on Drugs 2.0 in 2022, to combat illegal poppy cultivation and disrupt its distribution and trade. Despite these campaigns and operations to seize illicit drugs, the issue remains persistent and complex. The state has also utilised methods such as spraying herbicides using drones.[r] Manually cutting down poppy plants requires significant work force. Drones and real-time satellite imagery are also used to identify poppy plantations in the hills.
An alternative development approach was introduced in 2022, where seeds of rabi crops, nursery items, tools, and equipment are supplied to 17 registered farmers societies from Senapati, Kangpokpi, Churachandpur, Kamjong, Ukhrul, Chandel, Tengnoupal, Tamenglong, and Noney in Manipur to convert Manipur into ‘Green Manipur’. While the Government has been implementing this and other initiatives, the rise in illicit drug trafficking underscores the need for a multifaceted approach to address the problem effectively.