From poppy fields to black markets Understanding the drug trade across India and Myanmar
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Sreeparna Banerjee (ORF, Observer Research Foundation)
Contd from previous issue
The route has remained closed since the pandemic as well as the escalating violence in Myanmar, which has resulted in the influx of over 70,000 Myanmar Nationals between 2021 and May 2024.
Synthetic Drugs
Synthetic drugs like methamphetamine have gained popularity in this region and have resulted in a decrease in opium production since 2015. Synthetic drugs are easier to produce compared to heroin, are cheaper, and generate a good income. Heroin production requires proper soil conditions, suitable weather, and hard labour. In contrast, meth is synthesised indoors, in weather-impervious laboratories, by small teams of chemists and yields greater value for less labour. The easy availability of alternative raw materials facilitates low-cost production and secures a manufacturing space or facility. Forensic profiles are also diversifying, with primary precursors shifting from ephedrine and pseudoephedrine to pheny- lacetone (P-2-P)-based manufacturing methods. Therefore, alternative synthesis routes are available if the illegal trade of precursor chemicals is restricted.
The production of meth in the form of both crystal and “yaba” tablets has soared in the country. Shan State remains the epicentre of methamphetamine production in East and Southeast Asia, evidenced by the numerous large-scale methamphetamine trafficking cases[k] in and around the state. In the past decade, organised crime groups in Asia have partnered with armed groups in Shan, particularly within the Special Regions, to engage in illicit drug manufacturing. However, Myanmar authorities have not identified any sizeable methamphetamine manufacturing facilities since April 2020; the only facilities seized in the past few years have been smaller methamphetamine tabletting operations in south Shan, which does not reflect the total supply of methamphetamine originating from the drug-producing regions of Shan. These areas are controlled by the United Wa State Army and the National Democratic Alliance Army, which have allied with organised crime groups.
Drug trafficking, while not overtly supported, has not been primarily targeted by the military government. There are several reasons for this. Political officials and the military establishment benefit financially from transnational organised crime, including illicit activities such as wildlife trafficking, illegal mining, logging, and the trafficking of people, arms, and drugs. These activities serve as a source of revenue for the government. The UNODC estimates that opiates constituted approximately 2-4 percent of Myanmar’s GDP in 2023.
India’s Concerns
India shares a 1,643-km porous border with Myanmar. The proximity of India’s northeastern states—Manipur, Mizoram, Nagaland, and Arunachal Pradesh—to the border facilitates easy access for drug smugglers, traffickers, and insurgent groups. This accessibility contributes to the trafficking and distribution of illicit drugs within these regions, aggravating local and regional security concerns.
Drug Trafficking Trends
Recent years have seen a surge in drug seizures in India’s North Eastern States bordering Myanmar. Between July 2022 and July 2023, the Manipur police seized contraband valued at approximately US$193 million.[54] In FY 2021-22, drugs worth US$10.17 million were seized, and in 2020-21, the haul was valued at US$14.36 million. Experts estimate that 90 percent of drugs smuggled into the NER originate in Myanmar. The year 2024 continues to reflect this trend, as indicated by drug seizure reports across several NER states.
Between 1 January and 25 April 2024, the Excise & Narcotics Department of Mizoram apprehended individuals involved in drug trafficking and alcohol-related activities; 2,297 individuals were arrested and 30 vehicles linked to these illicit activities were seized. The department confiscated large amounts of illicit substances, including 26.494 kg of heroin, 384.1001 kg of marijuana, and 112.528 kg of methamphetamine. Additionally, the department intercepted 5,127 vials of cough syrup, 1,678 tablets of alprazolam, and 136 tablets of tramadol.
Illicit Poppy Cultivation in Manipur
India is the only country in Asia that licenses farmers to cultivate opium gum for medical and scientific purposes. Legal cultivation is regulated in Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, and Uttar Pradesh. The Central Bureau of Narcotics (CBN) issues licences to farmers, who must meet specific yield requirements and sell their entire opium harvest to the government. This regulated market contrasts sharply with the illegal cultivation and trafficking activities in the North Eastern States.
Illicit poppy cultivation is prevalent in the NER, including in Manipur and Arunachal Pradesh, which share extensive borders with Myanmar’s Kachin State, Sagaing Region, and Chin State. These borderlands have similar geographical landscapes and are home to ethnic groups who reside in remote and mountainous areas. The similar socio-economic structure, enduring insurgencies, and shared cultural and geographical ties between these regions enable the persistence of illicit poppy cultivation.
In Arunachal Pradesh, opium cultivation is primarily concentrated in the Anjaw and Lohit districts, whereas in Manipur, it is most prevalent in the Saikul, Ukhrul, and Chandel districts. Opium cultivation is a tradition in certain areas in Arunachal Pradesh, whereas in other areas, it is a more recent practice adopted by villagers as a means of livelihood.
Reports indicate that opium cultivation in Manipur is more closely intertwined with the regional drug economy and connected to various actors, mainly from Myanmar. This region exhibits distinct patterns of drug use compared to Arunachal Pradesh, with residents consuming a broad range of manufactured drugs, including cough syrup, methamphetamine (often referred to as “WY from Myanmar”), heroin (originating from Imphal, the capital of Manipur), and pharmaceutical drugs such as alprazolam. This contrasts with Arunachal Pradesh, where opium remains the most commonly consumed drug in villages.
Manipur has experienced a significant increase in illegal poppy cultivation over the past decade. Poppy is known locally as kaani, and its farming has become widespread in the state’s hilly areas, which are primarily inhabited by tribal communities. According to the Narcotic and Affairs Border (NAB) unit of the Manipur police, illicit poppy cultivation is concentrated in the hill districts of Ukhrul, Senapati, Kangpok-pi, Kamjong, Churachandpur, and Tengnoupal. Between 2020 and February 2021, law enforcement agencies eradicated 1,420 acres of poppy crops. From 2017 to 2019, Manipur police destroyed 2,858 acres of poppy fields. There are frequent seizures of drugs such as WY tablets, Spasmo Proxyvon (SP) capsules or painkillers, methamphetamine, opium, heroin, and brown sugar, as well as other contraband substances worth millions of dollars.
The emergence of heroin manufacturing units in Manipur drives primarily from the rise in poppy cultivation in Manipur. For instance, in December 2019, a heroin lab was busted in Kangpokpi and 41 kg of heroin worth INR 165.172 crore were seized. Three of the six drug labs destroyed in 2019 were in the Thoubal district. Between 2020 and 2022, security forces busted four more labs in Thoubal. This highlights the close link between poppy plantations and the drug trade, with poppy from Manipur being sold to dealers in Myanmar for drug production, which is then smuggled back into the state.
Routes of Drug Trafficking
Manipur is located near main drug trafficking routes from Myanmar, mostly through the Shan Hills and Tiddim in Chin State. The State is known as a transit hub for smuggling drugs to various parts of the world.
(To be contd)
Contd from previous issue
The route has remained closed since the pandemic as well as the escalating violence in Myanmar, which has resulted in the influx of over 70,000 Myanmar Nationals between 2021 and May 2024.
Synthetic Drugs
Synthetic drugs like methamphetamine have gained popularity in this region and have resulted in a decrease in opium production since 2015. Synthetic drugs are easier to produce compared to heroin, are cheaper, and generate a good income. Heroin production requires proper soil conditions, suitable weather, and hard labour. In contrast, meth is synthesised indoors, in weather-impervious laboratories, by small teams of chemists and yields greater value for less labour. The easy availability of alternative raw materials facilitates low-cost production and secures a manufacturing space or facility. Forensic profiles are also diversifying, with primary precursors shifting from ephedrine and pseudoephedrine to pheny- lacetone (P-2-P)-based manufacturing methods. Therefore, alternative synthesis routes are available if the illegal trade of precursor chemicals is restricted.
The production of meth in the form of both crystal and “yaba” tablets has soared in the country. Shan State remains the epicentre of methamphetamine production in East and Southeast Asia, evidenced by the numerous large-scale methamphetamine trafficking cases[k] in and around the state. In the past decade, organised crime groups in Asia have partnered with armed groups in Shan, particularly within the Special Regions, to engage in illicit drug manufacturing. However, Myanmar authorities have not identified any sizeable methamphetamine manufacturing facilities since April 2020; the only facilities seized in the past few years have been smaller methamphetamine tabletting operations in south Shan, which does not reflect the total supply of methamphetamine originating from the drug-producing regions of Shan. These areas are controlled by the United Wa State Army and the National Democratic Alliance Army, which have allied with organised crime groups.
Drug trafficking, while not overtly supported, has not been primarily targeted by the military government. There are several reasons for this. Political officials and the military establishment benefit financially from transnational organised crime, including illicit activities such as wildlife trafficking, illegal mining, logging, and the trafficking of people, arms, and drugs. These activities serve as a source of revenue for the government. The UNODC estimates that opiates constituted approximately 2-4 percent of Myanmar’s GDP in 2023.
India’s Concerns
India shares a 1,643-km porous border with Myanmar. The proximity of India’s northeastern states—Manipur, Mizoram, Nagaland, and Arunachal Pradesh—to the border facilitates easy access for drug smugglers, traffickers, and insurgent groups. This accessibility contributes to the trafficking and distribution of illicit drugs within these regions, aggravating local and regional security concerns.
Drug Trafficking Trends
Recent years have seen a surge in drug seizures in India’s North Eastern States bordering Myanmar. Between July 2022 and July 2023, the Manipur police seized contraband valued at approximately US$193 million.[54] In FY 2021-22, drugs worth US$10.17 million were seized, and in 2020-21, the haul was valued at US$14.36 million. Experts estimate that 90 percent of drugs smuggled into the NER originate in Myanmar. The year 2024 continues to reflect this trend, as indicated by drug seizure reports across several NER states.
Between 1 January and 25 April 2024, the Excise & Narcotics Department of Mizoram apprehended individuals involved in drug trafficking and alcohol-related activities; 2,297 individuals were arrested and 30 vehicles linked to these illicit activities were seized. The department confiscated large amounts of illicit substances, including 26.494 kg of heroin, 384.1001 kg of marijuana, and 112.528 kg of methamphetamine. Additionally, the department intercepted 5,127 vials of cough syrup, 1,678 tablets of alprazolam, and 136 tablets of tramadol.
Illicit Poppy Cultivation in Manipur
India is the only country in Asia that licenses farmers to cultivate opium gum for medical and scientific purposes. Legal cultivation is regulated in Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, and Uttar Pradesh. The Central Bureau of Narcotics (CBN) issues licences to farmers, who must meet specific yield requirements and sell their entire opium harvest to the government. This regulated market contrasts sharply with the illegal cultivation and trafficking activities in the North Eastern States.
Illicit poppy cultivation is prevalent in the NER, including in Manipur and Arunachal Pradesh, which share extensive borders with Myanmar’s Kachin State, Sagaing Region, and Chin State. These borderlands have similar geographical landscapes and are home to ethnic groups who reside in remote and mountainous areas. The similar socio-economic structure, enduring insurgencies, and shared cultural and geographical ties between these regions enable the persistence of illicit poppy cultivation.
In Arunachal Pradesh, opium cultivation is primarily concentrated in the Anjaw and Lohit districts, whereas in Manipur, it is most prevalent in the Saikul, Ukhrul, and Chandel districts. Opium cultivation is a tradition in certain areas in Arunachal Pradesh, whereas in other areas, it is a more recent practice adopted by villagers as a means of livelihood.
Reports indicate that opium cultivation in Manipur is more closely intertwined with the regional drug economy and connected to various actors, mainly from Myanmar. This region exhibits distinct patterns of drug use compared to Arunachal Pradesh, with residents consuming a broad range of manufactured drugs, including cough syrup, methamphetamine (often referred to as “WY from Myanmar”), heroin (originating from Imphal, the capital of Manipur), and pharmaceutical drugs such as alprazolam. This contrasts with Arunachal Pradesh, where opium remains the most commonly consumed drug in villages.
Manipur has experienced a significant increase in illegal poppy cultivation over the past decade. Poppy is known locally as kaani, and its farming has become widespread in the state’s hilly areas, which are primarily inhabited by tribal communities. According to the Narcotic and Affairs Border (NAB) unit of the Manipur police, illicit poppy cultivation is concentrated in the hill districts of Ukhrul, Senapati, Kangpok-pi, Kamjong, Churachandpur, and Tengnoupal. Between 2020 and February 2021, law enforcement agencies eradicated 1,420 acres of poppy crops. From 2017 to 2019, Manipur police destroyed 2,858 acres of poppy fields. There are frequent seizures of drugs such as WY tablets, Spasmo Proxyvon (SP) capsules or painkillers, methamphetamine, opium, heroin, and brown sugar, as well as other contraband substances worth millions of dollars.
The emergence of heroin manufacturing units in Manipur drives primarily from the rise in poppy cultivation in Manipur. For instance, in December 2019, a heroin lab was busted in Kangpokpi and 41 kg of heroin worth INR 165.172 crore were seized. Three of the six drug labs destroyed in 2019 were in the Thoubal district. Between 2020 and 2022, security forces busted four more labs in Thoubal. This highlights the close link between poppy plantations and the drug trade, with poppy from Manipur being sold to dealers in Myanmar for drug production, which is then smuggled back into the state.
Routes of Drug Trafficking
Manipur is located near main drug trafficking routes from Myanmar, mostly through the Shan Hills and Tiddim in Chin State. The State is known as a transit hub for smuggling drugs to various parts of the world.
(To be contd)