From poppy fields to black markets Understanding the drug trade across India and Myanmar
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Sreeparna Banerjee (ORF, Observer Research Foundation)
The 2023 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime report highlights a surge in drug production in Myanmar, posing serious security challenges. The cultivation of poppy, key for heroin production, increased by 33 percent in 2022, reversing a downward trend seen since 2014. Experts attribute the rise largely to livelihood challenges: Myanmar’s economy contracted by 18 percent in 2021, with only a modest rebound in 2022, and there are the compounding problems of currency devaluation and inflation. The uptick is pronounced in regions near the India- Myanmar border, such as Sagaing Region, Chin State, Kachin State, and Shan State. The escalation in drug seizures and poppy farming in Indian States like Manipur, Mizoram, Nagaland, and Arunachal Pradesh also points to the expansion of trafficking networks. This paper examines the security ramifications of the increasing drug trade along the India-Myanmar border.
Introduction
Drug trafficking is a non-traditional security threat that has consequences for public health and safety, and undermines political stability and economic development. Globally, drug trafficking flows are valued at US$650 billion, accounting for 30 percent of the total illicit economy.
India’s North Eastern Region (NER) has been grappling with the challenge of drug trafficking since the 1970s, primarily due to the region’s proximity to the Golden Triangle. The unfenced, porous Indo-Myan- mar border facilitates a substantial flow of narcotics into India, impacting the socio-economic fabric of this region.
Myanmar is the largest cultivator of opium and producer of heroin globally after Afghanistan. Its strategic location within the Golden Triangle, with its overland routes and porous borders, enables the smooth flow of illicit substances, making it a big player in the regional drug trade network. These operations are often managed by organised crime groups, ethnic militias, insurgent organisations, and military factions, which also engage in other illicit activities such as arms smuggling, money laundering, and human trafficking.
In 2023, Myanmar became the world’s top opium producer, with illicit crop cultivation expanding from 99,000 to 116,000 acres. This rise has intensified the threat of drug trafficking in the NER. In FY 2022-23 alone, contraband worth over US$267 million were recovered in the NER States. There is a need for steadfast cooperation and coordination between National and international law enforcement agencies to curb the transna-tional syndicate. To this end, India and Myanmar have certain mechanisms in place, but have failed in arresting the drug trade.
The following sections will analyse the nexus between security threats and drug trafficking; assess the India-Myanmar border dynamics; and examine the factors behind the increase in poppy cultivation in Myanmar after the 2021 coup. It then addresses India’s concerns, focusing on the North Eastern State of Manipur; explores existing bilateral and multilateral mechanisms; and offers recommendations for ways forward.
Drug Trafficking and its Implications to National Security
The illegal movement of narcotics and drugs poses multiple threats to National security. First, it results in breaches of a country’s international borders by drug traffickers, which raises concerns about the State’s ability to control borders and protect its citizens from external threats. The ease of drug smuggling along these routes may suggest that the same channels could also be used for smuggling arms, explosives, and terrorists into the country.
Second, the money generated from the illegal sale of narcotic drugs could be used to finance insurgency and terrorist activities. In the NER, smaller militant organisations are directly involved in drug trafficking to generate quick funds.
Lastly, drug trafficking harms the economy, public health, and political landscape. The widespread availability of narcotics increases domestic demand, leading to anti-social behaviour, which then creates disruptions in law and order. Public health is severely impacted, with increased rates of addiction, overdoses, and related diseases, which in turn strain healthcare systems. Furthermore, drug trafficking directly impacts the political process, with drug cartels subverting, penetrating, and corrupting state institutions to control the illegal drug trade.
The India-Myanmar border faces unconventional security challenges, involving issues such as the movement of insurgents across borders, trafficking of narcotics and drugs, illegal arms trade, wildlife and human smuggling, and the illicit transportation of essential items. The vulnerability of the India-Myanmar border to these threats is primarily attributed to the nature and location of the border.
The delineation of the border is outlined in the India-Burma Boundary Agreement of 10 March 1967. While the rest of the international border has been demarcated, disagreements persist regarding the alignment of certain stretches between the two countries. In 2018, the Indian Minister of Home Affairs stated that there were no significant issues and that only the marking of nine pillars along the international border in the Manipur sector remained to be addressed. However, the COVID-19 pandemic and subsequent political instability due to the 2021 coup stalled the task.
Besides unresolved disputes, the India-Myanmar border is highly permeable due to four factors:
A Superimposed Border : The border created by the Pemberton line divides communities in the region and separates tribes such as the Nagas, Kukis, Mizos, and Chins. Despite artificial separations, these tribes maintain strong cross-border social and economic ties with their clan members, prioritising clan loyalties over National affiliations. Such robust trans-border ethnic connections have impeded the nation-building process in the region and delayed the establishment of a clear international border.
The Free Movement Regime (FMR) : The FMR has complicated the delineation of the India-Myanmar border. Recognising that areas across the border constitute a unified socio-economic space for tribes, both Governments have agreed to allow tribes people to move up to 16 kilometres into each other’s territory without documentation. While this arrangement helps tribes maintain their long-standing connections, it has also been exploited by Indian insurgents, who use the FMR to cross into Myanmar to undergo arms training, establish safe havens, and re-enter India to conduct subversive activities. Additionally, this route has facilitated the flow of drugs and narcotics.
(To be contd)
The 2023 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime report highlights a surge in drug production in Myanmar, posing serious security challenges. The cultivation of poppy, key for heroin production, increased by 33 percent in 2022, reversing a downward trend seen since 2014. Experts attribute the rise largely to livelihood challenges: Myanmar’s economy contracted by 18 percent in 2021, with only a modest rebound in 2022, and there are the compounding problems of currency devaluation and inflation. The uptick is pronounced in regions near the India- Myanmar border, such as Sagaing Region, Chin State, Kachin State, and Shan State. The escalation in drug seizures and poppy farming in Indian States like Manipur, Mizoram, Nagaland, and Arunachal Pradesh also points to the expansion of trafficking networks. This paper examines the security ramifications of the increasing drug trade along the India-Myanmar border.
Introduction
Drug trafficking is a non-traditional security threat that has consequences for public health and safety, and undermines political stability and economic development. Globally, drug trafficking flows are valued at US$650 billion, accounting for 30 percent of the total illicit economy.
India’s North Eastern Region (NER) has been grappling with the challenge of drug trafficking since the 1970s, primarily due to the region’s proximity to the Golden Triangle. The unfenced, porous Indo-Myan- mar border facilitates a substantial flow of narcotics into India, impacting the socio-economic fabric of this region.
Myanmar is the largest cultivator of opium and producer of heroin globally after Afghanistan. Its strategic location within the Golden Triangle, with its overland routes and porous borders, enables the smooth flow of illicit substances, making it a big player in the regional drug trade network. These operations are often managed by organised crime groups, ethnic militias, insurgent organisations, and military factions, which also engage in other illicit activities such as arms smuggling, money laundering, and human trafficking.
In 2023, Myanmar became the world’s top opium producer, with illicit crop cultivation expanding from 99,000 to 116,000 acres. This rise has intensified the threat of drug trafficking in the NER. In FY 2022-23 alone, contraband worth over US$267 million were recovered in the NER States. There is a need for steadfast cooperation and coordination between National and international law enforcement agencies to curb the transna-tional syndicate. To this end, India and Myanmar have certain mechanisms in place, but have failed in arresting the drug trade.
The following sections will analyse the nexus between security threats and drug trafficking; assess the India-Myanmar border dynamics; and examine the factors behind the increase in poppy cultivation in Myanmar after the 2021 coup. It then addresses India’s concerns, focusing on the North Eastern State of Manipur; explores existing bilateral and multilateral mechanisms; and offers recommendations for ways forward.
Drug Trafficking and its Implications to National Security
The illegal movement of narcotics and drugs poses multiple threats to National security. First, it results in breaches of a country’s international borders by drug traffickers, which raises concerns about the State’s ability to control borders and protect its citizens from external threats. The ease of drug smuggling along these routes may suggest that the same channels could also be used for smuggling arms, explosives, and terrorists into the country.
Second, the money generated from the illegal sale of narcotic drugs could be used to finance insurgency and terrorist activities. In the NER, smaller militant organisations are directly involved in drug trafficking to generate quick funds.
Lastly, drug trafficking harms the economy, public health, and political landscape. The widespread availability of narcotics increases domestic demand, leading to anti-social behaviour, which then creates disruptions in law and order. Public health is severely impacted, with increased rates of addiction, overdoses, and related diseases, which in turn strain healthcare systems. Furthermore, drug trafficking directly impacts the political process, with drug cartels subverting, penetrating, and corrupting state institutions to control the illegal drug trade.
The India-Myanmar border faces unconventional security challenges, involving issues such as the movement of insurgents across borders, trafficking of narcotics and drugs, illegal arms trade, wildlife and human smuggling, and the illicit transportation of essential items. The vulnerability of the India-Myanmar border to these threats is primarily attributed to the nature and location of the border.
The delineation of the border is outlined in the India-Burma Boundary Agreement of 10 March 1967. While the rest of the international border has been demarcated, disagreements persist regarding the alignment of certain stretches between the two countries. In 2018, the Indian Minister of Home Affairs stated that there were no significant issues and that only the marking of nine pillars along the international border in the Manipur sector remained to be addressed. However, the COVID-19 pandemic and subsequent political instability due to the 2021 coup stalled the task.
Besides unresolved disputes, the India-Myanmar border is highly permeable due to four factors:
A Superimposed Border : The border created by the Pemberton line divides communities in the region and separates tribes such as the Nagas, Kukis, Mizos, and Chins. Despite artificial separations, these tribes maintain strong cross-border social and economic ties with their clan members, prioritising clan loyalties over National affiliations. Such robust trans-border ethnic connections have impeded the nation-building process in the region and delayed the establishment of a clear international border.
The Free Movement Regime (FMR) : The FMR has complicated the delineation of the India-Myanmar border. Recognising that areas across the border constitute a unified socio-economic space for tribes, both Governments have agreed to allow tribes people to move up to 16 kilometres into each other’s territory without documentation. While this arrangement helps tribes maintain their long-standing connections, it has also been exploited by Indian insurgents, who use the FMR to cross into Myanmar to undergo arms training, establish safe havens, and re-enter India to conduct subversive activities. Additionally, this route has facilitated the flow of drugs and narcotics.
(To be contd)